Assignment 31 The assimilation theory is the way that children perceive the world. The theory suggests that a child may change or sometimes alter what they see in the outside world to fit their internal world. Assimilation happens when the child doesn’t change the internal world to fit the object.
Accommodation is a more complicated form of perception. The theory suggests that the internal world must change to be able to fit in the outside world. Accommodation happens when a child sees information that cannot fit into any pre-existing category so the child will create a new area of intelligence.
In the sensorimotor stage something a child will learn is object permanence. Object permanence is when a child knows that an object still exists even if it is hidden.
Symbolic function contains two things, animism and transductive thinking. Animism is when a child gives a toy human characteristics. Transductive thinking is when a child is able to put two thoughts together even though they have nothing in common.
Children in the concrete operational stage are usually from ages 7 to 11. They are able to gain abilities of conservation such as number, volume, orientation and so on. Their thinking is more logical but they are not able to think abstractly or hypothetically. They can conserve liquid, they know that if a glass of water is poured into a bowl, the amount of water will stay the same. Conservation of number also later develops, they children will be able to count out numbers of objects.
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning is a method to test theories or hypotheses. HD reasoning appears in the formal operational stage. Piaget claimed that there are two general developmentally-based levels of hypothesis testing skill. The first level is testing the hypotheses about observable agents and the second is testing the hypotheses about unobservable agents.
http://voices.yahoo.com/piagets-theory-assimilation-accommodation-in-5759980.html
http://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html
http://jean-piaget-theory.com/preoperational-stage-the-symbolic-function-substage-animism-and-transductive-thinking
Accommodation is a more complicated form of perception. The theory suggests that the internal world must change to be able to fit in the outside world. Accommodation happens when a child sees information that cannot fit into any pre-existing category so the child will create a new area of intelligence.
In the sensorimotor stage something a child will learn is object permanence. Object permanence is when a child knows that an object still exists even if it is hidden.
Symbolic function contains two things, animism and transductive thinking. Animism is when a child gives a toy human characteristics. Transductive thinking is when a child is able to put two thoughts together even though they have nothing in common.
Children in the concrete operational stage are usually from ages 7 to 11. They are able to gain abilities of conservation such as number, volume, orientation and so on. Their thinking is more logical but they are not able to think abstractly or hypothetically. They can conserve liquid, they know that if a glass of water is poured into a bowl, the amount of water will stay the same. Conservation of number also later develops, they children will be able to count out numbers of objects.
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning is a method to test theories or hypotheses. HD reasoning appears in the formal operational stage. Piaget claimed that there are two general developmentally-based levels of hypothesis testing skill. The first level is testing the hypotheses about observable agents and the second is testing the hypotheses about unobservable agents.
http://voices.yahoo.com/piagets-theory-assimilation-accommodation-in-5759980.html
http://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html
http://jean-piaget-theory.com/preoperational-stage-the-symbolic-function-substage-animism-and-transductive-thinking
Assignment 32
Sensation: Are things in environment that have to do with the five senses. There are limitations on the sensations because of how we sense things.
Perception is how we interpret the sensation that we sense. This is like how someone sees a color, and or how they hear music. If we didn't have perception everyone would be the same, but because we do have it it makes people stand out from each other.
The picture below shows exactly how it works.
Sensation: Are things in environment that have to do with the five senses. There are limitations on the sensations because of how we sense things.
Perception is how we interpret the sensation that we sense. This is like how someone sees a color, and or how they hear music. If we didn't have perception everyone would be the same, but because we do have it it makes people stand out from each other.
The picture below shows exactly how it works.
Assignment 33
Expectations help people put meaning to their perceptions. They’re important because expectations give people a reality of their perceptions and make people feel better because they have an expectation and do not have to worry about what will happen. Motivation in perception helps people see what they want to see. Motivation helps people feel an urge to do something or to see something differently.
http://www.sozialpsychologie.uni-frankfurt.de/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Balcetis-Dunning-2006.pdf
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698907005469
Expectations help people put meaning to their perceptions. They’re important because expectations give people a reality of their perceptions and make people feel better because they have an expectation and do not have to worry about what will happen. Motivation in perception helps people see what they want to see. Motivation helps people feel an urge to do something or to see something differently.
http://www.sozialpsychologie.uni-frankfurt.de/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Balcetis-Dunning-2006.pdf
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698907005469
Assignment 34
Gestalt is a psychology term which means unified whole. The term refers to theories of visual perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. These theories are used to describe how people organize visual elements into groups when certain principles are applied. These principles are similarity, continuation, closure, proximity, and figure and ground.
Similarity is when objects looked the same as other objects, people often say that they look like a group or a pattern.
Continuation is when the eye feels the urge to move through one object and continue through another object.
Closure is when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If enough of the shape is shown, people will be able to fill in the missing information.
Proximity is when elements or objects are placed closely together and are generally perceived as a group.
Figure and ground is when the eye sees a form, silhouette, or shape it is usually called a figure or object, the surrounding area is usually called the ground or background.
http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm
Gestalt is a psychology term which means unified whole. The term refers to theories of visual perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. These theories are used to describe how people organize visual elements into groups when certain principles are applied. These principles are similarity, continuation, closure, proximity, and figure and ground.
Similarity is when objects looked the same as other objects, people often say that they look like a group or a pattern.
Continuation is when the eye feels the urge to move through one object and continue through another object.
Closure is when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If enough of the shape is shown, people will be able to fill in the missing information.
Proximity is when elements or objects are placed closely together and are generally perceived as a group.
Figure and ground is when the eye sees a form, silhouette, or shape it is usually called a figure or object, the surrounding area is usually called the ground or background.
http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm
Assignment 35
Normally humans view things in three dimensions. Since we have two eyes, one eye sees one thing and the other sees another. Because of this the brain has to combine the two images so that we can understand what we are looking at.
Normally humans view things in three dimensions. Since we have two eyes, one eye sees one thing and the other sees another. Because of this the brain has to combine the two images so that we can understand what we are looking at.
Assignment 36
The relationship between the Muller-Lyer illusion and size consistency is that they both are about depth. The Muller-Lyer illusion is two lines that have brackets on the ends of them. One line has brackets facing inward and the other has brackets facing outward. The line with the outward facing brackets looks like it is larger/longer than the other one. These lines actually are the same size but the mind sees it as one is bigger than the other. The mind also thinks that one line is closer than the other. Since they both create images of equal length, the line that looks like it is closest is seen as the smallest.
Size consistency is when the mind is able to tell if an object is big or small when looking at it from a distance. A good example of this is when someone looks at a city skyline, the mind knows that the buildings are very tall even though when the person would hold out their hand, it would be small compared to their hand. The person will still perceive the buildings and skyscrapers as tall because they are far away and deep in the visual field.
http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Size%20Constancy
http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycfair/mullyer.htm
The relationship between the Muller-Lyer illusion and size consistency is that they both are about depth. The Muller-Lyer illusion is two lines that have brackets on the ends of them. One line has brackets facing inward and the other has brackets facing outward. The line with the outward facing brackets looks like it is larger/longer than the other one. These lines actually are the same size but the mind sees it as one is bigger than the other. The mind also thinks that one line is closer than the other. Since they both create images of equal length, the line that looks like it is closest is seen as the smallest.
Size consistency is when the mind is able to tell if an object is big or small when looking at it from a distance. A good example of this is when someone looks at a city skyline, the mind knows that the buildings are very tall even though when the person would hold out their hand, it would be small compared to their hand. The person will still perceive the buildings and skyscrapers as tall because they are far away and deep in the visual field.
http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Size%20Constancy
http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycfair/mullyer.htm
Assignment 37
Short term memory has limited capacity, only about seven items can be stored at one time. There is a limited duration, information can be lost because of distraction or passage of time. There is also encoding where it is primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds.
Long term memory capacity could be unlimited, but trying to remember things may be because of accessibility rather than availability. Duration could be just a few minutes or a lifetime. Procedural memory is in charge of remembering how to do things. Semantic memory is in charge of storing information about the world. Semantic memory also includes knowing the meaning of words and general knowledge. Episodic memory is in charge of storing information about evens that we have experienced throughout our lives.
There are a few theories on why someone will forget things. One reason is retrieval failure where the mind is unable to retrieve something from the memory part of the brain. One theory for retrieval failure is known as decay theory, where after a long period of time if a person does not rehearse that memory it will eventually be lost.
Another reason is interference. A theory known as the interference theory states that some memories will interfere with other memories. When a memory is similar to another memory, interference is likely to occur. There are two types of interference, proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive interference is when an old memory makes it hard or impossible to remember a new memory. Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with the ability to remember old memories.
The third reason is failure to store. Sometimes forgetting information is because the brain will not store the information that a person wanted to remember.
The fourth reason is because of motivated forgetting. Motivated forgetting is when the mind will actually work to try to forget memories. These memories are usually traumatic or disturbing. There are two basic forms of motivated forgetting and they are suppression and repression. Suppression is the conscious form of forgetting and repression is the unconscious form of forgetting.
http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/explanations-for-forgetting.htm
http://www.simplypsychology.org/short-term-memory.html
http://www.simplypsychology.org/long-term-memory.html
Short term memory has limited capacity, only about seven items can be stored at one time. There is a limited duration, information can be lost because of distraction or passage of time. There is also encoding where it is primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds.
Long term memory capacity could be unlimited, but trying to remember things may be because of accessibility rather than availability. Duration could be just a few minutes or a lifetime. Procedural memory is in charge of remembering how to do things. Semantic memory is in charge of storing information about the world. Semantic memory also includes knowing the meaning of words and general knowledge. Episodic memory is in charge of storing information about evens that we have experienced throughout our lives.
There are a few theories on why someone will forget things. One reason is retrieval failure where the mind is unable to retrieve something from the memory part of the brain. One theory for retrieval failure is known as decay theory, where after a long period of time if a person does not rehearse that memory it will eventually be lost.
Another reason is interference. A theory known as the interference theory states that some memories will interfere with other memories. When a memory is similar to another memory, interference is likely to occur. There are two types of interference, proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive interference is when an old memory makes it hard or impossible to remember a new memory. Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with the ability to remember old memories.
The third reason is failure to store. Sometimes forgetting information is because the brain will not store the information that a person wanted to remember.
The fourth reason is because of motivated forgetting. Motivated forgetting is when the mind will actually work to try to forget memories. These memories are usually traumatic or disturbing. There are two basic forms of motivated forgetting and they are suppression and repression. Suppression is the conscious form of forgetting and repression is the unconscious form of forgetting.
http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/explanations-for-forgetting.htm
http://www.simplypsychology.org/short-term-memory.html
http://www.simplypsychology.org/long-term-memory.html
Assignment 38
One of the most popular theories about motivation is the incentive theory, it states that behavior is motivated by a desire or reinforcement or incentives. The incentive theory is different from other theories because the incentive theory suggests that motivation is caused by outside incentives. The incentive theory also suggests that actions are directed toward gaining rewards. Not all incentives are equal and a person may feel more motivated to do something than a different person. Incentives also do not have to remain the same value over time either, they can change over time due to certain situations.
Another theory is the instinct theory of motivation. This theory suggests that all organisms are born with instincts that help them survive. This theory also suggests that all drives for motivation are caused by drives within a person rather than outside forces.
http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/a/incentive-theory-of-motivation.htm
http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/a/instinct-theory-of-motivation.htm
One of the most popular theories about motivation is the incentive theory, it states that behavior is motivated by a desire or reinforcement or incentives. The incentive theory is different from other theories because the incentive theory suggests that motivation is caused by outside incentives. The incentive theory also suggests that actions are directed toward gaining rewards. Not all incentives are equal and a person may feel more motivated to do something than a different person. Incentives also do not have to remain the same value over time either, they can change over time due to certain situations.
Another theory is the instinct theory of motivation. This theory suggests that all organisms are born with instincts that help them survive. This theory also suggests that all drives for motivation are caused by drives within a person rather than outside forces.
http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/a/incentive-theory-of-motivation.htm
http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/a/instinct-theory-of-motivation.htm
Assignment 39
There are a few ethical guidelines that one must remember while doing research on a human subject. One must remember to discuss intellectual property frankly. Which means the person that is being tested is allowed to ask questions and the researcher should be able to answer the questions promptly and in a way that the person can understand. The researcher should also store all of their data, that way if someone says that they did something wrong, they can go back and look over their data to back up their situation.
Another guideline is to be conscious of multiple roles. Psychologists should avoid relationships that could exploit or harm others. Certain relationships are allowed but they cannot compromise the results of the study. Examples of relationships would be recruiting students or clients as participants.
The researcher should also follow informed-consent rules. This means that the researcher should explain the procedure fully to the participant and they are aware of the risks/benefits. The researcher should inform the participant of the purpose of the research, how long it will take, and the procedure. The researcher must also inform the participant of their rights to decline their participation, and if they are in the middle of the study and wish to stop participating, they should be informed of the risks of stopping early. They should also be informed of limits of confidentiality such as sharing and archiving, disposal, and when confidentiality must be broken.
Another guideline is to respect confidentiality and privacy. The participant should be aware of the limits of confidentiality and know the federal and state law. The researcher should take practical security measures and should think about data sharing before beginning research.
The researcher should also tap into ethics resources. Which means that they should look into what their ethical obligations are and what resources are available to them. This can help researchers avoid and resolve any ethical dilemmas that they may encounter.
http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan03/principles.aspx
There are a few ethical guidelines that one must remember while doing research on a human subject. One must remember to discuss intellectual property frankly. Which means the person that is being tested is allowed to ask questions and the researcher should be able to answer the questions promptly and in a way that the person can understand. The researcher should also store all of their data, that way if someone says that they did something wrong, they can go back and look over their data to back up their situation.
Another guideline is to be conscious of multiple roles. Psychologists should avoid relationships that could exploit or harm others. Certain relationships are allowed but they cannot compromise the results of the study. Examples of relationships would be recruiting students or clients as participants.
The researcher should also follow informed-consent rules. This means that the researcher should explain the procedure fully to the participant and they are aware of the risks/benefits. The researcher should inform the participant of the purpose of the research, how long it will take, and the procedure. The researcher must also inform the participant of their rights to decline their participation, and if they are in the middle of the study and wish to stop participating, they should be informed of the risks of stopping early. They should also be informed of limits of confidentiality such as sharing and archiving, disposal, and when confidentiality must be broken.
Another guideline is to respect confidentiality and privacy. The participant should be aware of the limits of confidentiality and know the federal and state law. The researcher should take practical security measures and should think about data sharing before beginning research.
The researcher should also tap into ethics resources. Which means that they should look into what their ethical obligations are and what resources are available to them. This can help researchers avoid and resolve any ethical dilemmas that they may encounter.
http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan03/principles.aspx
Assignment 40
Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. The first intelligence test was preformed by Alfred Binet. He had to help decide which students would have a harder time in school. Alfred Binet was a French psychologist, the French government had asked him to help decide which students would do well in school because the French government passed a law that required all French children to attend school. Binet and his assistant Theodore Simon began to think of questions to ask the students that had not been taught in school. These questions involved attention, memory, and problem solving skills. When he had given the children these questions he began to realize that some children were able to answer questions that the older children were usually able to answer. But other children that were the same age were only able to answer questions that younger children could usually answer. After he began to look into this more, he began to suggest that they should measure intelligence based on mental age, or the average abilities of children of a certain age group. This first intelligence test became the basis for the intelligence tests that are used today. Binet did not believe that just one test could determine permanent and inborn level of intelligence. He believed that intelligence is too big of a concept that can be determined by just one test. He believed that intelligence is based on a number of factors and changes over time. This test was later brought to the United States where people began to research it more. The score for the Standford-Binet test used a single number. To find the score, Binet had to divide the test taker’s mental age by their chronological age, then that number was multiplied by 100.
The next big development of intelligence testing was created by psychologist David Wechsler. He developed two different tests that were made specifically for children. They were called the Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). The adult version of the WPPSI was revised and is called the WAIS-IV. The WAIS-IV includes ten subtests and five supplemental tests. The test provides score in four areas of intelligence: Verbal Comprehension Index, Perceptual Reasoning Index, Working Memory Index, and Processing Speed Index.
Artifacts
http://www.slideshare.net/lpaviglianiti/artificial-intelligence-presentation-9416312
Artificial Intelligence Presentation
Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. The first intelligence test was preformed by Alfred Binet. He had to help decide which students would have a harder time in school. Alfred Binet was a French psychologist, the French government had asked him to help decide which students would do well in school because the French government passed a law that required all French children to attend school. Binet and his assistant Theodore Simon began to think of questions to ask the students that had not been taught in school. These questions involved attention, memory, and problem solving skills. When he had given the children these questions he began to realize that some children were able to answer questions that the older children were usually able to answer. But other children that were the same age were only able to answer questions that younger children could usually answer. After he began to look into this more, he began to suggest that they should measure intelligence based on mental age, or the average abilities of children of a certain age group. This first intelligence test became the basis for the intelligence tests that are used today. Binet did not believe that just one test could determine permanent and inborn level of intelligence. He believed that intelligence is too big of a concept that can be determined by just one test. He believed that intelligence is based on a number of factors and changes over time. This test was later brought to the United States where people began to research it more. The score for the Standford-Binet test used a single number. To find the score, Binet had to divide the test taker’s mental age by their chronological age, then that number was multiplied by 100.
The next big development of intelligence testing was created by psychologist David Wechsler. He developed two different tests that were made specifically for children. They were called the Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). The adult version of the WPPSI was revised and is called the WAIS-IV. The WAIS-IV includes ten subtests and five supplemental tests. The test provides score in four areas of intelligence: Verbal Comprehension Index, Perceptual Reasoning Index, Working Memory Index, and Processing Speed Index.
Artifacts
http://www.slideshare.net/lpaviglianiti/artificial-intelligence-presentation-9416312
Artificial Intelligence Presentation
Assignment 41
The brain at a young age is capable of doing many things, learning a language is one of them. Some children are able to learn two or three languages at a young age which proves that the brain is remarkable at a young age.
Language begins in infancy. From birth to around six months, babies will coo, squeal, yell, and squeak. Cooing helps with the formation of vowels as the child gets older.
Between six months to around ten months the baby will start babbling which is more complicated sounds. They add vowels together and their first consonants are h, b, and m. These letters are combined with vowels to make syllables. Later on the baby will add p, d, t, w, n, f, y and v. After those letters, the baby will then add the letters k, g, and ng. The baby will take a while to pronounce certain words but they do know the difference between words even if they mispronounce them. The parents of a baby play a major role in forming a child’s language. Mothers usually adjust their speech to fit the child’s level of speech. The sentences will be shorter and will have a lot of repetition, this is called motherese. Motherese also involves something called protoconversation, this deals with babies who do a little more than cooing or babbling in conversations. These conversations generally do not involve the child actually speaking, but the mother will get the child’s attention and start talking about something while the child gives their feedback.
By ten months of age, most children are able to understand between 5-10 words.
Around 12-18 months is called the one word or holophrastic stage. Which means each word continues a sentence by itself. By twelve months children are able to say three or four words and are able to understand thirty to forty words. By fourteen months, the child will be able to understand 50-100 words. By eighteen months a child can say 25 to 50 words and is able to understand hundreds of words.
As a child gets older, they are able to say and understand more and more words, and once they are at a certain age they can also start to read and write.
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/langdev.html
The brain at a young age is capable of doing many things, learning a language is one of them. Some children are able to learn two or three languages at a young age which proves that the brain is remarkable at a young age.
Language begins in infancy. From birth to around six months, babies will coo, squeal, yell, and squeak. Cooing helps with the formation of vowels as the child gets older.
Between six months to around ten months the baby will start babbling which is more complicated sounds. They add vowels together and their first consonants are h, b, and m. These letters are combined with vowels to make syllables. Later on the baby will add p, d, t, w, n, f, y and v. After those letters, the baby will then add the letters k, g, and ng. The baby will take a while to pronounce certain words but they do know the difference between words even if they mispronounce them. The parents of a baby play a major role in forming a child’s language. Mothers usually adjust their speech to fit the child’s level of speech. The sentences will be shorter and will have a lot of repetition, this is called motherese. Motherese also involves something called protoconversation, this deals with babies who do a little more than cooing or babbling in conversations. These conversations generally do not involve the child actually speaking, but the mother will get the child’s attention and start talking about something while the child gives their feedback.
By ten months of age, most children are able to understand between 5-10 words.
Around 12-18 months is called the one word or holophrastic stage. Which means each word continues a sentence by itself. By twelve months children are able to say three or four words and are able to understand thirty to forty words. By fourteen months, the child will be able to understand 50-100 words. By eighteen months a child can say 25 to 50 words and is able to understand hundreds of words.
As a child gets older, they are able to say and understand more and more words, and once they are at a certain age they can also start to read and write.
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/langdev.html